Behavioral And Mental Disorders - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 12 Words: 3689 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Health Essay Type Essay any type Did you like this example? CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Mental and behavioral disorders are common and affect more than 25% of all people at some time during their lives. One in four families is likely to have at least one member with a behavioral or mental disorder. It is estimated that mental disorders contribute a large share to the global disease burden and account for 33% of the years lived with the disability worldwide.(Jai Rakini Aruna,2007) The Global Burden of Disease study found mental disorders to be the fourth leading cause of disability. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Behavioral And Mental Disorders" essay for you Create order Depression alone was the single leading cause of global disability. For a better treatment family cohesion is essential. In the primitive societies, mental illness was thought to be caused by evil spirits. As time passed, professionals and society understood the importance of the family members participating in the care of the mentally ill patients in the hospital. An extremely significant innovation that has been extensively validated in recent times was the bold experiments of Dr Vidha Sagar at the Amritsar Mental Hospital. The approach was the comprehensive involvement of families in the care recovery and aftercare of psychotic patients and facilitated their acceptance and turn to their own homes in the community. These efforts continued in the 1960s at NlMHANS and culminated in the opening of the family ward. Today, there is widespread international acceptance of such approaches, which are known under the rubric of family interventions.(Dr.Lalitha ,2007) The family has always been recognized as an important factor both in the genesis and prognosis of mental illness. Initial studies generally focused on the possible etiologic role of the family, but the perspective has now changed to incorporating the family as a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“reactorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? to mental illness of a member. This has led to interest in various problems that arise from the patientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s presence at home such as financial difficulties or marital disharmony. The sum total of these problems or difficulties which affect the significant others of a psychiatric patient is referred to as social  or  family  burden. Care for severely mentally ill individuals may carry a heavy burden, more so than the care for other disabled individuals such as mentally retarded people. It is particularly true for close family members such as parents, many of whom take care of their mentally ill children for long. Such burden manifests in reduced caregiver wellbeing which ad mittedly depends in part on caregiver factors such as care-giving style. Moreover, such burden may manifest in reduced wellbeing of the mentally ill individuals themselves, for example, due to impaired caregiver support 1.1Need  for  the  study: Living with and caring for an individual with a psychiatric disorder seems inherently stressful. Relatives of psychiatric patients report a wide range of reactions to their situation. On the whole, these family members endorse significantly higher level of psychological distress than the general population. Mental illness has long been a problem in modern society. The treatment and rehabilitation of clients with mental illness are a heavy burden on the government. It is estimated that two to three persons in every thousand adults suffer from serious mental illness such as affective disorders and schizophrenia. Studies have shown that in taking care of the mentally ill, the family caregivers have to face the followi ng stress and burdens: Feelings of insecurity, sorrow and worry, potential harm and aggression, stigmatization by relatives and friends, psychiatric emergencies and relapse, dependence, social isolation, fear of the future. Deinstitutionalization, restricted hospital admission and reduction of length of inpatient treatment also change the situation of relatives. Nowadays they are much more involved in the care of patients. Many caregivers of a person with schizophrenia suffer from ongoing distress whereas professionals tend to underestimate family burden. Thus caregivers feel ignored by mental health professionals. This divergent perception underlines the importance of quantitative studies on family burden. Health professionals and mental health nurses have an important duty to acknowledge the burden of caregivers. They are in a position to render support and refer them to get further support through social workers and community agencies. Such measures would ensure family well being for families with mentally ill patients. For that the mental health nurse needs to assess the burden of caregivers and to identify the support they receive during their period of care-giving in the hospital. Many studies have been done on the burden that relatives experience when living with a psychiatric patient. 1.2 Statement of the problem PROMOTION OF COPING MEASURES TO PRIMARY CAREGIVERS OF MENTALLY ILL IN MANAGEMENT OF STRESS IN VAZHIKATTI CENTER AT COIMBATORE. 1.3 Objectives 1.3.1. Assessment of the stress level of primary caregivers of mentally ill patients. 1.3.2. Assessment of level of coping measures adopted by caregivers of mentally ill patients. 1.3.3. Effect of coping measures in management of stress among the primary caregivers of mentally ill patients. 1.4Assumptions 1.4.1. The caregivers will have some degree of stress related to the care of mentally ill relatives. 1.4.2. Promotion of coping measures will help the caregivers to manage the stress. 1.5 Hypotheses H1: There will be reduction in stress among caregivers of mentally ill by using coping measures. 1.6 Operational Definitions 1.6.1. Promotion: Promotion is the process to reduce stress and improve psychological wellbeing among care givers by adopting various coping measures. 1.6.2. Coping measures: various strategies taken to decrease the stress level. 1.6.3. Primary Caregiver: It refers to a person who spends most of the time in meeting the physical psychological need of the mentally ill. 1.7 Promotion of Coping Measures Related to Caregivers Stress Among Mentally Ill Patients: The conceptual framework for this study derived from General System Theory (Ludwig Von Laffy, 1968).According to general system theory, a system is asset of components or units interacting with each other with in a boundary that filters the kind and rate of flow of inputs and outputs to and from the systems. (Fig 1.1) In this study, the input is the assessment of level of stress and assessment of coping measures in caregivers using a questionnaire. Throughput is the active phase where a planned teaching programme admi nistered to the caregivers on ways of coping measures to manage stress. Output is the reassessment of level of stress. 1.8 Projected Outcome Coping measures will improve the caregiverà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s ability to cope with stress and perform better in their daily activities. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW A Literature review is a critical summary of research on a topic of interest often prepared to put a research problem in context .A literature review helps to lay the foundation for a study and can also inspire new research ideas. A systematic review of literature and appraisal of all the relevant scholarly literature on the specific topic involves an in depth study. An extensive review of literature was done on the related research and non research literature. The literature was reviewed under the following areas and analyzed: 2.1. Literature related to caregivers stress 2.2. Literature related to coping measures used to reduce stress 2.1 Literature related to Caregivers stress A comparative study was conducted among Euro- Americans and Latinos to study the relationship between family burden of schizophrenia and socio cultural context. Findings suggest differences in levels of family distress in relation to socio-cultural factors like gender, ethnicity, diagnosis, and living situation, across cultural and diagnostic groups. (JH Jenkins and JG Schumacher1999). Two Indian comparative studies were conducted in different states of India on the caregiversà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ burden of schizophrenia and OCD patients. Ninety two First degree relatives/ spouses were compared. One study showed higher burden in OCD group that was high among spouses than relatives of schizophrenia group .One more study showed higher burden in schizophrenia than OCD. (Guru raj .et. al., 2008) The study was conducted to measure the perception of burden by caregivers of patients with schizophrenia at Institute of Mental Health and Hospital, Agra. the Burden Assessment Schedule (BAS ) was correlated to spouse, physical and mental health, external support, caregivers routines, support to patient, responsibility-taking, other relatives, patients behavior and caregivers strategy. A number of sample is thirty four caregivers of patient with schizophrenia. A low positive correlation was found between urban domiciles and support of the patient and the caregivers routine. There was a low positive correlation between age less than 30 years and the physical and mental health of the caregiver, and with taking responsibility. (Sunil Srivastava 2005) This comparative cross-sectional study assessed family burden among caregivers of patients with OCD and schizophrenia. in an Indian setting. Findings shows Indian families experience significant degrees of burden in the care of their relatives with OCD and schizophrenia. Relatives demographic characteristics did not influence burden severity. Illness severity and patients disability had a direct positive relationship with p erceived family burden.this study suggest to develop local needs based support programmes for families of patients with psychiatric disorders in India. (Rammohan A et al., 2002) A case study was investigated the incidence of chronic sorrow in parents of chronically mentally ill children like schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Convenience samples of 10 parents (four couples and two mothers) of adult children were interviewed using the Burke/NCRCS Chronic Sorrow questionnaire (Caregiver Version). Results showed that 8 out of 10 parents experienced chronic sorrow and suggested that healthcare professionals could assist them by providing information about their childs illness and by involving them in the treatment process. (Georgene G. Eakes2004). A study was examined on psychological distress among Latino family caregivers of adult with schizophrenia. The interview was done by using Zarit Burden Scale. The results shows that younger caregiver age, lower levels of caregivers ed ucation, and higher levels of the patients mental ill0ness symptoms were predictive of higher levels of caregivers depressive symptoms. Caregivers perceived burden mediated the relation between patients psychiatric symptoms and caregivers depression. (Sandy. M. Magana et al,1997). The comparative study was conducted to study the caregivers of mentally ill relatives to explore the relationship between gender and perceived levels of burden. Ninety-seven caregivers (76 women, 21 men) were interviewed. Women were found to experience a greater sense of burden and frustration than men in caring for their mentally ill relatives. The authors concluded that women encountered a wide range of difficulties centered around family and child rearing. (Ascher-Svanum and Sobel,1989). A study explores the influences of selected social and psychological factors that are associated with perceived caregiver stress among 263 primary caregivers of the elderly in Allahabad City in northern India. The results indicate that although male caregivers perceived stress depends only on the size of the role overload, female caregivers perceived stress depends on the interrelationship between the size of the role overload and adherence to Asian cultural norms. (Rashmi Gupta et al., 2010). 2.2 Literature Related to Coping measures to Reduce caregivers stress A analytical study conducted at Iran to identify caregivers at risk for adverse health effects associated with care giving, the stress, coping, health. The sample size used was 500 primary caregivers of patients with bipolar disorder. The results shows Burdened caregivers had less coping levels, lower mastery and social support. Effective and stigmatized groups had better health outcomes and less service use than the burdened group over time; stigmatized caregivers had poorer self-care than effective caregivers. (Perlick DA et al.,2008). A descriptive study was examined the effectiveness of a stress relief initiative for primary caregivers of adolescents with intellectual disability (ID) at Taiwan. Seventy-seven primary caregivers of people with ID were selected the study, which involved participation in one stress management workshop (intervention group only) and both groups reading an education booklet on stress management. They found that 22.1% of caregivers in the study were at high risk of depressive stress and in need of mental health consultation; this prevalence was nearly six times that of the general population. The study results show that a face-to-face workshop is an effective way to decrease levels of depressive stress. (Hu J et al., 2010) The pilot study was conducted to assess the level of stress experienced by caregivers of brain tumor patients and to examine both their interest in and preferences for stress reduction programs at North Carolina in USA. Convenience sampling technique was used. The sample size is 60 adult caregivers. The study examined the caregivers level of stress, beliefs, past experiences, and preferences in regard to stress reduction programs. A seventy two percent of the caregivers reported elevated stress levels , eighty seven percent caregiver believed that stress reduction techniques can help reduce stress ,eighty one percent caregiver were interested in learning about programs to reduce stress . Overall, sixty fi ve caregivers wanted to receive information about stress reduction programs and seventy three percent caregivers were interested in programs such as exercise to reduce stress. Overall, fourty four percentages of caregivers were interested in participating in the various stress reduction programs presented to them in this study. These data provide further evidence that caregivers experience elevated levels of stress and are willing to learn more about and participate in programs to reduce stress .(Keir.ST,2007). The descriptive study was to examine the effects of music, progressive muscle relaxation (PMR), and music combined with progressive muscle relaxation on the reduction of anxiety, fatigue, and improvement of quality of life in family hospice caregivers at university of Kansas in USA. Sample size is 32 .The duration of study was 2 weeks. Paired t test indicated that the control and PMR group exhibited a significant difference in pre and posttest quality of life scores. Resul ts shows that a significant correlation between anxiety and quality of life, anxiety and fatigue, fatigue and quality of life. ( ChoiYK,2010). A mail survey was conducted using a representative sample of 998 employed Chicago residents who provided informal care for at least one person. Ordinary least squares regression models were computed to examine the relationship between caregiver burden and drinking outcomes. Results suggest that caregivers who experience social and emotional burdens related to care giving are at risk for problematic alcohol use and warrant attention from health care and mental health service professionals. (Rosependa KM .et al,2010). A comparative study conducted in Australia to investigate the relationship between depression, nutritional risk and dietary intake in a population of older caregivers. Mailed questionnaire with sub group participating in a home based interview was used. Seventy-six community dwelling caregivers aged 50 years or over from Vic toria, Australia. The data collected related to weight, height, hours of care, depressive symptoms, nutritional risk and appetite, dietary intake and shopping, cooking and meal consumption habits. Results shows thirty two percent of caregivers had depressive symptoms twenty one percent were at risk of malnutrition and twenty one percent reported their appetite was bad. Caregivers with depressive symptoms (32%) compared to those with no depressive symptoms (53%) had a poorer appetite (p 0.05). Of the 20 caregivers who participated in the home interview, 25% reported they ate their meals alone. A results suggest older caregivers had depressive symptoms, were at risk of malnutrition and had poor appetites, although the majority were overweight or obese.(Torres SJ,et al2010) A randomized comparative trial was undertaken comparing yoga with relaxation in South Australia. One hundred and thirty-one subjects with mild to moderate levels of stress. One hour sessions of relaxation or hat ha yoga for 10 weeks .Following the 10 week intervention stress, anxiety and quality of life scores improved over time. Yoga was found to be as effective as relaxation in reducing stress, anxiety and improving health status. Yoga was more effective than relaxation in improving mental health. Vitality, social function and mental health. Yoga appears to provide a comparable improvement in stress, anxiety and health status compared to relaxation.(Smith C et al .,2007). A pilot study of a yoga and meditation intervention for dementia caregiver stress. Twelve older female dementia patient family caregivers were participated. This study planned to help caregivers cope with stress. Pre test and post test revealed statistically significant reductions in depression and anxiety and improvements in perceived self-efficacy. These findings suggest that yoga and meditation may be a feasible and effective intervention for family caregivers and may improve affect, coping, physical well-being, an d stress management.(Waelde L C et al.,2004). CHAPTER III MATERIALS AND METHODS This study is designed to promote the coping measures to manage stress among caregivers of mentally ill patients. The steps of quantitative research process are adopted for conducting the study. It includes the research design, setting, population and sampling, sample size, determination, instrument and tools for data collection, variables of the study and techniques of data collection, methods of data analysis and interpretation and report of the pilot study. 3.1 One Group Pre Test and Post test Design: The research design used in this study is one group pre and post test design. This is a quasi experimental design. Here the test acts as a measurement tool for the evaluation effect on post test. This is a straight forward design in which there is only one pre assessment and one post assessment, with only one set of intervention. The level of stress of caregivers is initially assessed, based on which coping measures implemented after which stress level of caregiver is reassessed to know the impact of coping measures on reduction of stress. Figure 3.1 One group pre test and post test design Pre test (Assessment of coping measures and level of stress) Intervention (Administer Coping measures and relaxation technique) Post test (Post assessment of level of stress) 3.2 Setting of the study: The study was conducted at vazhikatti mental health centre, Coimbatore. The primary caregivers of mentally ill patient who were admitted in the vazhikatti centre were selected. 3.3 Population and sampling: All primary caregivers of mentally ill patients admitted at vazhikatti centre were taken for study during the period between 29.06.10 to 25.07.10. 3.4 Criteria For Sample Selection: 3.4.1 Inclusion criteria Primary Caregivers of mentally ill patients those who are admitted in the hospital. Caregivers who could understand speak English, Tamil 3.4.2 Exclusion criteria Caregivers like paid home nurses, paid house maid, were not included in the study. 3.5 Variables of the study: 3.5.1 Independent Variables: The independent variables in this study are the structured teaching and demonstration of relaxation technique to the caregivers on ways of coping measures to manage stress. Demographic variables such as age of the caregiver, sex, religion, educational qualification, occupation, relationship of caregiver with patient, monthly family income, source of income, bread winner of the family, source of expenses, type of family, diagnosis of the patient, duration of illness of the client, frequency of hospital visit and person taking care of the children are all independent variables. 3.5.2 Dependent variables: The dependent variables of the study are stress level among the caregivers before education and stress level after education. 3.6 Instrument for data collection: The instrument used for the collection of data was rating scale for assessing the level of stress and self coping measures adopted by the caregivers. Section 1:The demographic data inclu des age of the caregiver, sex, religion, educational qualification, occupation, relationship of caregiver with patient, monthly family income, source of income, bread winner of the family, source of expenses, type of family, diagnosis of the patient, duration of illness of the client, frequency of hospital visit and person taking care of the children. Section 11: This section also has a checklist which include 14 items related to self coping measures adopted by the caregivers when scores increase their coping skill would be rated as adequate, if it less than 50 scores rated as inadequate coping. Scoring: The scores are interpreted as follows. Level of stress Level of self coping Scoring Interpretation Scoring Interpretation 1-22 Very Mild Stress 23-44 Mild Stress 50-115 Adequate coping 45-66 Moderate Stress 50 Inadequate coping 67-88 Severe Stress Section 1I1: The rating scale includes 22 items. Each question has four possible responses as never, rarely, sometimes, quite frequently and nearly always. The scoring given as 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.The level of stress categorized as very mild ,mild, moderate, and severe. 3.7 Reliability and Validity of Instrument And Tools for Data Collection:The tools was prepared with the help of literature review and expert guidance. The reliability and validity of tool was tested through pilot study. 3.8 Data Collection Procedure: The main study was conducted from 24.06.2010 to 25.07.2010. Primary care taker were selected. The questions were read in tamil by the investigator and responses were recorded. Each interview was conducted on one to one basis which lasted for 20 minutes. Education was given regarding definition of stress, signs and symptoms of s tress, and various stress management techniques was conducted for one hour using audio visual aids (charts),following this on next day one hour allotted for demonstration of relaxation exercises. Care givers were reinforced to adopt the coping measures to manage stress and encourage doing relaxation exercises. Reassessment was done after 10 days of education using the same check list. 3.9 Techniques Of Data Analysis: The data collected through various methods has been compiled and by adopting appropriate statistical techniques inferences were drawn. After clarification, data frequencies are calculated for demographic, social and economic variables to determine the distribution pattern of the caregivers into each category. Similarly frequencies are calculated for level of stress among caregivers. The distribution pattern is depicted through appropriate graphical methods. The results are inferred through statistical technique like paired à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢tà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ test and simple correlation coefficient. The comparison of level of stress before and after coping measures is interpreted through paired à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢tà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ test and the influence of independent variable like family income, Calculated through simple correlation coefficient. 3.9.1 Pairedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"tà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Test: This was adopted to find out the significant difference between pretest score and post test score. The formula is d =Difference between pretest and post test score. d =Mean difference pretest and post test score. SD=Standard deviation of pretest and post test score. =Root of number of samples. 3.9.2 Karl Pearsonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Co-Efficient of correlation: This was calculated to find out the influence of independent variables on the dependent variable. The formula is X =( x à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" x ) Y =( y à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" y ) X =Independent variable. Y =Dependent variable. 3.10 Report of the Pilot Study: The pretest was conducted by using the planned checklist for the caregivers. A planned teaching programme was conducted for one hour. Next day demonstration of relaxation exercises were given for one hour separately for each one. 7 to 10 days when discharge day posttest was conducted and results were analyzed based on the scores. During the analysis of the result it was found that caregivers stress level was reduced from moderate to mild stress level and mild level stress to very mild level stress after the implementation of coping measures.

Kings David and Solomon from 10th Century B.C.E. to...

Kings David and Solomon: From 10th Century B.C.E. to present day Controversy Introduction Perhaps the most famous Old Testament Kings, as well as two of the most famous Hebrew heroes of all time were, King Solomon and his father King David. Their stories have been told time and time again throughout the ages: passed down orally for centuries, then later reproduced and shared all over the globe as intricate portions of many historical religious texts including the Torah, the Koran and the Holy Bible. Biblical sources include: I Chronicles, I Kings, Ecclesiastes, as well as the accounts of many prophets. Furthermore, King David and King Solomon have been attributed to writing several Old Testament books including: the Song of Solomon,†¦show more content†¦1000 B.C.E. (Castel, 1985, pp.87-89; Grant, 1984, pp.75-78; Learsi, 1949, pp. 49-51; Rogerson, 1999, pp.79-80; 2 Samuel, c.a. 1100-1010 B.C.E., pp. 505-555). In a brilliant political move David took over the Jebusite city of Jerusalem and made it the capitol of the new United Kingdom of Israel â€Å"thencefor ward to be honored as the City of David† (2 Samuel, 1997, pp. 505-555; Eban, 1999, p. 47). Moving the capitol to Jerusalem was an ingenious move on David’s part since it placed him geographically between the northern tribes of Israel and the former Judah. This also unified the Hebrew nation politically since Jerusalem was a fresh start, not being formerly of Israel or Judah. In order to unify the nation religiously David (with the help of King Hiram of Tyre) built a palace on Mount Zion where he housed the Ark of the Covenant (Castel, 1985, p. 90; Eban, 1999, p. 49; Halkin, 2006, p. 43; Learsi, 1949, p. 55; Rogerson, 1999, pp. 81-82). He then set out to expand his kingdom taking over and taxing all of Canaan (Rogerson, 1999, p. 82). King David ruled Israel for the next 33 years (Castel, 1985, p. 89; Harkin, 2006, p. 41). Unfortunately the house of David, like many great monarchs (especially those who practiced polygamy) faced great diplomatic personal odds. Amon g them was internal dissent including a great deal of â€Å"palace intrigue† that was coupled with David’s personal struggles

Discuss Berlioz’s Contribution to the Symphony Free Essays

Discuss Berlioz’s contribution to the symphony Berlioz is often overlooked as an influential composer; however the reality is that he was one of the most important due to his developing ideas of how orchestration could be expanded, how symphonic form could be developed and how music would be written in a programmatic style. Above all this, Berlioz was one of the pioneers of the Romantic period, inspiring through his innovation of ideas such as the ‘idee fix’ and as some saw it, his disregard for the ‘Viennese Architectural Legacy’ and ‘rules of composition’. The ‘idee fix’ was Berlioz’s most famous creation as it enabled him to take a more narrative approach to his composing. We will write a custom essay sample on Discuss Berlioz’s Contribution to the Symphony or any similar topic only for you Order Now This was important as it contrasted from the strongly structured music that had come before him. The  idee fixe is used to unify the disparate elements of the symphony in ‘Symphonie Fantastique’. Another talent Berlioz was gifted with was the art of orchestration. Although, it was not an advance that was received well at the time, it had an overarching effect of great significance. Berlioz demonstrated his talent in his first symphony, ‘Symphonie Fantastique’. This work was the first of four symphonies that Berlioz composed. ‘Symphonie Fantastique’ was composed in a programmatic format. Berlioz may well have been the first great composer to not be able to play a musical instrument, nor to have shown any musical talent at an early age. But he persevered, and became interested in different ways to use the orchestra and the different combinations of instrumental sounds. In 1844, he wrote a book on orchestration  which he named, â€Å"Traite de l’Instrumentation† which is still widely appreciated and used today. Berlioz’ advances in this area contributed greatly to the growth and development of the modern symphony orchestra. Berlioz was the first composer to closely associate his symphonies with extra musical ‘programmes’. He described his ‘Symphonie Fantastique’ as an ‘opera without words’; with each movement vividly describing a different scene of his feelings, often with extreme changes in mood and feeling. The advance of composing program music is the reason why most people regard Berlioz as a romantic. Having said that, Berlioz’s life featured unsuccessful love, dramatic triumphs, and dismal failures, many of the traits most romantics would be associated with. The emotional turmoil of his life is reflected in his music and this is why he was the most innovative symphonist of the early Romantic era, Wagner described his music as ‘devilishly confused musical idiom’. Symphonie Fantastique’ was the first that Berlioz wrote in a programmatic style; however ‘Harold en Italie’ is also another clear example of Berlioz’s symphonic program music. To conclude, Berlioz’s main contributions to the symphony was his creative innovations in both the introduction of the ‘idee fix’ and his advances which contributed greatly to the growth and development of the modern symphony orchestra. It could be argued that a more overarching and sig nificant contribution was the romanticism which he clearly displays in all of his symphonies which paved the way for the later Romantic composers. How to cite Discuss Berlioz’s Contribution to the Symphony, Essay examples

Factors Affecting Prices of iPads

Question: Examine the factors that determine the price of iPad in a free market. In recent years, the prices of iPad have continued to fall even in the face of increasing demand. Analyse with the aid of a diagram how this has occurred. Answer: Objectives The iPad was launched in 2010 and from the technological point of view it can be said to be highly incredible, revolutionary and something which will provide a brand satisfaction. In a span of 2 years it has been witnessed that it has not only been successful but also dominated the market. The purpose of this assignment is to shed light on the price establishing mechanism of the iPads. It is to be note that there are various methods and factors which are observed before taking a price decision. The dominance can be gained only when there is a good policy and the price determination is well placed. In the further discussion we will complete material on the price making mechanism of iPads. The second part will shed light on the falling prices of iPads inspite of rise in demand. There are many factors which paves the way for fall in prices such as too many entrants, technological advancement, price war, etc (Braeutigam, 2010). The secret behind Apple and its products (iPad) is by dint o f product line, as well as design standards. It has the best of the features and factors which drives the brand. Be it a design firm to software powerhouse to a computer builder it is all in all. Factors Affecting Prices of iPads How Apple sets the prices New products come to the market and it is a great fun to shed light on the features and compare it. Apple hardly matters about the critics and leave it entirely on the numbers to speak (Opocher Steedman, 2009). With a cool head along with luck good deals can be grabbed with a simple vision and an alert sense of mind. As a matter of fact the provision of discount is one of the primary tool that enables the retailers to compete with each other in a formidable manner. All bet s, as well as rivalry is due to the apple iPads. Apple devices and Macs are the ones that accelerated the discount game (Buchanan, 2010). It is very difficult to find such a huge difference between retailers but is really a major point of attraction. House Advantage There are various laws which regulates competition among leaders but the question crops up how does Ipads (Apple) did an amazing achievement. The answer is simple and straightforward which is price maintenance. This is one of the major tool of Apple that helps in establishing price and when it comes to iPads it was majorly done. Hence, this allotted the advantage to iPads and enables them to pass on the advantage to the retailers too. There are plenty of products which move from manufacturers to retailers by a channel of distributors. It is to be noted that even the product has a pre-defined price, individual retailer is provided the advantage to set own price. When it comes to Apple, it stretch only a little wholesale discount on its Macs, as well as iPads to the retailer of choice. The actual numbers remain a secret which is protected by strong confidentiality between Cupertinno, as well the resellers. On the contrary the difference exists only in few percentage points which is seen at Apple stores. Hence, retailers cannot offer big discounts when it comes to iPads. When it comes to other products there is a huge difference. In case of products there is a huge difference as regards to manufactured suggested retailer price. A laptop with a MSRP of $600 might appear for the retailer as $ 300 to buy and may have the sticker price of $400 which is even backed up by a strong 30% discount. Different retailer might act differently in this regard and tune the sales in his favour. But, iPad is not determined by any such concepts. The retailer cannot make such discounts on the iPad as it is properly regulated. Only a small fraction of wholesale dis count is provided. Carrot and stick The concept of price maintenance is also a major factor which determines the prices of iPad in the market. In this scenario, it needs to be noted that the retailers have less incentives to have the iPads, or to dedicate advertising space to them. Hence, the retailers cannot sell the iPads at below cost which is done in case of others products. This is the place where the strategy of Apple is strong in case of iPads and other related products. As a matter of fact Apple retail strategy is more define din nature (Huang, 2010). The price of iPads is determined by the strategy of the company. The company supplements the tiny wholesale discounts to resellers and provides benefits which are in monetary terms and this is done only when the resellers advertised products above a certain price which is known as the minimum advertised price. This support and arrangement enables retailers to make money on per sale basis but the customers are unable to get discounts in this regard. This helps Appl e to embark on a homogeneous iPad pricing. This strategy helps in establishing the prices of iPad in the free market. This helps the company head towards more sales and does not have to compete against the sellers which are generally offered by the resellers. It is to be noted that the retail operations of Apple is the best in the world and therefore profitable. Hence, this tends to determine the prices of iPads. The undercutting of prices is absent and hence it leads to be a better course of action and pricing strategy (Mankiw Scarth, 2011). In simple terms the individual retailer are unable to influences the pricing and hence the price model is entirely on the basis of the companys strategy. Hence, undercutting the prices will tend to make it underproductive. The pricing of iPad is based on the market scenario and prevents any single retailer to build a strong market position. Hence, advantage cannot be gained through this product. The narrow range in price variability is the important consideration and this helps to keep the prices intact and does not allow any single retailer to make a profit out of it. Hence, it can be said that the pricing of Apple iPads is in strong collaboration with that of the companys policies and that there is no scope that the external events can hamper or change the pricing. This enables the pricing of the iPads to be on an even basis. The distribution channel helps the company in maintaining the standard. Retail Channel The pricing of the iPads also depends upon the push that is generated by Apple. It has its own retail channel which helps in addition of margin which cannot be seen when it is provided to a retail store. This provides a psychological positive advantage and hence the pricing is provided acute stability. The provision of own retail channel cements the stability and therefore Apple does not have to depend on other retail stores for its sales. Hence, the iPad have a better platform and price is determined with ease and flexibility. Moreover, with the benefits such as clean and well crafted ambiance is the major prospect which is hardly found elsewhere (Shaw, 2012). Few years ago there was no such provision but with the new prospect and a high tech world there is so much demand for a tablet which automatically ranks over laptops. It is to be noted that the first impression is the most valuable one which provides a great class to the product. The stores of Apple provide customers a great i mpression of the iPad and hence enable the iPads to be sold at a good margin without having a little consideration into profits. (Laerme, 2007)The distribution of system is well placed and it leads to proper price mechanism. Hence, this method influences the price because the price of a product is determined by the free interplay of demand and supply forces. Now, it is seen in this scenario, that the iPads have a better market and with the role of the Apple stores it has ease of reach and availability. Manufacturing Apple has generated a lot of profits which is a unique stand. It has moved technology in a great manner which has ultimately boosted the entire market. Apple has exclusive access which has provided it a big advantage and since it has great command over this, the pricing of it products is done with ease and that too not depending upon the retailers. Apple has always been unique in terms of appeal and this where the products stands apart from the rest. The pricing of iPads is influenced by the responsive touch screens, better displays, slim devices, proper bodies and other differentiating factors. These factors are the major ones in determining the prices of iPads and since Apple has a major chunk in the market with a mass appeal it has benefitted from such acts. The price is set keeping the class and appeal in focus. Case of increasing demand and falling prices Apple launched iPad in the year 2010 and it was done with a low of euphoria. It was well placed so as to reach the customers and create a huge impact. From scratch in the beginning of 2010 the tablet market enhanced to more than 100 million units at the end of the year 2013. By 2016 the expected figure is to reach a mammoth 2016. Beyond question the growth is formidable, as well as astonishing. As a matter of fact Apple is the biggest player in this market and retains over 45% of the market share. On the contrary, it faces huge competition from Android OS which is coming to the same status as that of Apple. Apple carries several advantages in its favour as it is highly profitable and gains a lot by charging higher prices (Goodin, 2010). Apple has various advantages in the form of Initial mover in the market and whatever it does becomes a trend. It is similar for the iPad. It gained popularity because of the unique features and the backup by Apple. Compatibility factor of Apple and various other products. Brand loyalty which is very formidable. Technological advantages making it a powerful brand. Falling price of iPads Since the introduction of the Apple iPad in 2010 where the price was more than 700$, the average price of the tablet has been in a constant declining state and according to the market prediction the same is bound to happen (Madway, 2010). It is to be noted that this fall has been witnessed inspite of rising demand. Several factors are responsible for this which adds to the reason of falling prices of iPads, as well as other tablets. The table below provides a clear cut indication that the sale of iPad has fallen over a period of time and this is due to various factors which will be discussed in the later section of this project. Ipad Sales year by Year 2010 7.46 million 2011 32.39 million 2012 58.31 million 2013 71.04 million 2014 67.99 million 2015 21.42 million (one quarter) The fall in the prices and rise in the demand can be justified by this figure provided below. The price slumped by the demand has taken a new position which is indicated by D2. In this scenario we can witness that there is an increase in both the demand as well as supply factors. But, the increase in supply is more than the demand. This is the sole reason why the price has fallen inspite of the demand. From the above diagram it is clearly noted that the price has fallen even in the wake of rising demand. The demand of iPads is there in the market but the price has reached a low limit and hence the new equilibrium is framed. The price of iPad was tagged at $700 and it was available at Q1 which indicates the price and the quantity demanded. The meeting of supply and demand was the equilibrium point (Mankiw, 2011). But in the second case, the demand increased and inspite of increment in demand the price fell. This can be due to several reasons. Price skimming When apple launched iPad the product was tagged at $700 which was due to price skimming. Under this scenario high price is charged to them who are willing to pay high price for iPads . But, it needs to be noted that at that point of time there were few competitors in the market but the revolution in the area of technology brought many firm into action. Moreover, the process of iPad can also be said as premium pricing which means the price reinforce the status that Apple is the best quality. The entrants of new tablets in the market have provided a stiff competition. Therefore, the players are more in the market and since there are too many players, the price strategy or price war is the major weapon (Homburg,2009). This has severely affected all the competitors and this can be justified by the scene of falling prices even for Apple iPad. Technological Development The technological development has provided wings to the firms and as a result we can witness high class tablets and computers with low costs. This has resulted in a stiff competition. Consumers are inclined in purchasing of tablets which adds utility and can be purchased at minimum price. Considering this there has been a drastic fall in the price of the tablets. Since one firm imitates other, there is a huge competition and ultimately all have reduced their prices in order to accommodate change (Lee, 2011). Even iPads encountered this problem. Even in the wake of demand it witnessed a low price level. Growth in budget models With the due passage of time there has been numerous models in the market which boasts of the same performance. For example, in UK there are good budget models being sold by companies like Argos, Asda and Tesco. The budget models are for those who are sensitive to price and have a good linking for the functions. Customers who do not have the same loyalty may purchase them with ease and flexibility (Lee, 2011). This factor led to change in demand, the demand for the tablets increased and even the demand for iPads increased as the result of popularity of tablets but the price of iPads continued to fall even in the wake of demand because there was a strong boom in other budget models and in order to accommodate such situation the price came down to a lower level. Low profit margins Many companies are looking to cement their place in the market and as as a result of it the profit margin is very low. This is done in order to gain a formidable position in the long run in case of tablet market. It is to be noted that high sales would result in selling of secondary products. Apple iPad sales enhance the purchase of music from iTunes (Sarah, 2014). Tablets may not be profitable but the case of Microsoft is a glaring example. The operating system (Microsoft) can be seen in majority of the PCs which tend to provide a strong monopoly (Lee, 2011). Similar case can be observed in case of iPads where the price is settled for low in order to gain a commendable position and once the market is settled it will lead to significant result in the long run. This is an excellent manner of extracting more profits but needs to be noted that at the current level the price may be tagged too low. This is exactly the policy of iPads even in the situation of huge demand, the prices are le ss. Economies of Scale There has been a widespread growth in the tablet market which have enabled firms to take advantage of the economies of scale. This has enabled to cut down costs. Similar thing is witnessed in case of Apple iPads where the economies of scale and the technological development have shown a major turnaround. This has led to mass scale production and has lift the sales. This has provided the company the advantage to lower down costs and inspite of huge demand the product is available at lower prices. Moreover, when it comes to the competitive arena it can be said that price wars is the major weapon and drop in the prices along with the demand increment can be a strategy to gain a major chunk of the market (Murphy, 2013). Overall, Apple sold more than million during the past years sales. The sales figures is clearly reflected in the picture. From the figure and chart it can be seen that the sales in October fell more than 13% in comparison to the month of October in the last year (Murphy, 2013). Conclusion Apple products are well settled in the market and enjoy a great deal of dominance which can be justified by the sales as well as brand popularity. The pricing of iPads clearly highlights the unique concept which is followed by Apple in order to promote as well as enable maximum reach of the iPads. The unique method is followed so as to cut down competition and make the product easy available. Apple does not allow the retailers to gain a huge percentage on margin because it has well defined reach, as well as availability. Therefore, it is able to meet the customers demand in a unique manner. On the other hand, when it comes to decline in the prices of the iPads it can be said that there are various factors which influences such move. The demand of the product varies and this can happen not only from the action of that particular product but also the competitors product. Increase in demand with declining products for iPads indicates the motive of the Apple brand to cement the stability . Since there are number of players therefore such action has been taken into consideration. Due to this a new equilibrium of demand and supply will come into picture and will keep on happening when there is a new change. References Braeutigam, Ronald (2010). Microeconomics (4th ed.). Wiley.Buchanan, Matt (2010). Official: iPad Launching Here April 3, Pre-Orders. Gizmodo.. Retrieved June 4, 2015Goodin, Dan (2010). Hackers release jailbreak for iPad and newer iPhones. The Register. Retrieved June 4, 2015Homburg, Christian; Sabine Kuester, Harley Krohmer (2009): Marketing Management - A Contemporary Perspective (1st ed.), London.Huang, Joyce (2010). Best Under a Billion: Batteries Required? . Forbes. Retrieved June 4, 2015Laermer, Richard; Simmons Mark (2007) Punk Marketing, New York : Harper Collins,Lee, Matt (2011). Apple's iOS: smaller package, bigger restrictions. Free Software Foundation. (2007)Madway, Gabriel (2010). Special Report: iPad striptease: It's what's inside that counts". Reuters. Retrieved June 4, 2015Mankiw, N.G.; Taylor, M.P. (2011). Economics (2nd ed) Andover: Cengage LearningMurphy, Samantha (2013). Apple's 128GB iPad Now on Sale. Mashable. Retrieved June 5, 2015Mankiw N. Gregoryand Scarth, Wi lliam M. (2011) Macroeconomics. Canadian ed., 4th ed. New York: Worth PublishersOpocher, Arrigo Steedman, Ian (2009) Input Price-Input Quantity Relations and the Numeraire. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 3(2), 937-942Sarah Perez (2014). iTunes App Store Now Has 1.2 Million Apps, Has Seen 75 Billion Downloads To Date". TechCrunch. Retrieved June 4, 2015Shaw, E. (2012) Marketing strategy: From the origin of the concept to the development of a conceptual framework. Journal of Historical Research in Marketing, 4(1), 30

Application of Geography (GIS) In Biotechnology in Field Of Agriculture And Environment

Introduction Geographic information systems (GIS) have found widespread applications in many diverse fields as the number and range of such applications continue to increase with GIS extending to other fields. Biotechnology; a field in agriculture is one such area. The principal purpose of biotechnology is to improve productivity thus offering food security in areas that have faced food shortages in the past. With incorporation of GIS, meeting biotechnology goals has been realizable.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Application of Geography (GIS) In Biotechnology in Field Of Agriculture And Environment specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For instance, the South African government is realizing better crop production due to utilization of GIS coupled with biotechnology. With help of GIS, authorities are coming up with more authentic and precise crop estimates to counter uncertainty in the South African grain industry. This move helps in achieving biotechnology goals; that is, improved crop production hence, food security. Producer Independent Crop Estimate System (PICES) is currently in use in South Africa and is used primarily to estimate area covered by grain crops. Nevertheless, there are several challenges facing integration of GIS in this agricultural sector as explicated later in this paper. Why GIS in Biotechnology Elementarily, understanding geography and establishing its relationship with other fields like agriculture, enables people to make wise decisions and in this case, wise food security decisions. According to Wyland (2009, p. 4), â€Å"the ability of GIS to analyze and visualize agricultural environments and work flows has proved to be very beneficial to those involved in the farming industry.† In biotechnology, GIS is helping to foster production, manage land expeditiously, and cut unnecessary costs in production. It is true that farmers cannot control farming natural inpu ts like soil, land, and rainfall among others; however, understanding these inputs through analysis by GIS systems, would work to their advantage in achieving their objectives in farming. For instance, through GIS, farmers can determine crop yield approximates, canvass soil amendments, detect soil erosion and postulate remediation strategies. Moreover, GIS is used to study other farming practices like pest control, fertilizer application, and crop diseases among others. The Most Appropriate Data Model The most appropriate data model in this agricultural application is the vector data models/structures (Soller 1999). â€Å"This mapping approach characterizes the vertical variations of physical properties in each 3-D map unit† (Soller Berg 2003). This model addresses the issue of determining land under grain crops better. The three dimensional mapping element of this model qualifies it as the most appropriate tool.Advertising Looking for essay on agriculture? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Moreover, this model is the best tool for mapping geographical space; it presents spatial locations precisely and relates entities implicitly (Doe 1997). According to Johnson, (1998, p. 16), this model has â€Å"Points associated with single set of coordinates with lines connected to sequence of coordinate pairs and area sequence of interconnected lines whose 1st last coordinate points are the same.† Therefore, given the objective of using GIS in this field, vector model stands out as the best. Estimating land under crop cover has to be more accurate and reliable if farmers are to root out the nightmare of food insecurity. Above all, the vector model represents what the map really looks like including all the dimensions (Tomlinson 2005). The data obtained in this model can be stored in separate files with a link connecting them thus enhancing information sharing and preventing complete information loss a t the same time (Soller Lindquist 2000). Moreover, this model comes in diverse varieties like, spaghetti, network model, dime files, and digital line graph (DLG) among others (Berry 1993). Therefore, based on the above key points, the vector data model is the most suitable one for this exercise. Applicable Data Sets and Data Sources As aforementioned, vector data model comes in varieties and this means that there are varieties of data sets available. In this agricultural field, one would consider using data sets like, ArcAtlas; Our Earth, which contains â€Å"global geographic and attribute data at three scales†¦with 1:20,000,000 for Africa† (ESRI Data Maps 2002). Others include digital charts of the world, and ESRI data and maps. These data sets enable users to break down geographical information into manageable sizes that can fit into computerized models (Lee Kretzschmar 2003). The 1: 20, 000, 000 scales have been used successfully in South Africa to estimate land u nder grain crops as aforementioned. Applicable data sources in this case include information from farmers and crop field boundaries that have been digitalized from satellite imagery. To complete this project of determining grain cropland cover in South Africa, the government is coming up with model maps representing this land. These model maps are the only products that this exercise has been able to come up with so far. To make these maps, several steps are involved as explicated next. Steps Used in Obtaining the Maps There are five steps used in developing the required maps that represent grain cropland cover in the estimation process. As aforementioned, the South African government is using PICES in this exercise.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Application of Geography (GIS) In Biotechnology in Field Of Agriculture And Environment specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The first step is getting satellite imagery. According to Fourie (2009, p. 9), the government of South Africa via Ministry of Agriculture provides the satellite imagery where, â€Å"SPOT Image Spot 5 satellite imagery with a 2.5-meter resolution is used as the base layer for digitizing.† After obtaining this satellite imagery, it is used to digitize the crop field boundaries. This exercise uses ArchMap, which lies under ArchAtlas. For clear-cut boundaries and images, 1:10,000 scales are used then the elaborate metadata captured in ArcCatalog from one province to the other. Through this method, the nine South African provinces are already digitalized. After obtaining clean and precise digitalized crop field boundaries, point frames are designed coupled with random sample point selection (Smith, Goodchild Longley 2007). The importance of random sample point selection is to ensure representation of possible cropped fields as subjects of field survey. A square point grid (45 m by 45m), is constructed for the total area und er each of the nine provinces. All the grid points falling outside the field boundaries are eliminated from the test population for they are improbable to locate any crop. The digitalized fields are then divided depending on the possibility of getting a crop. In these divisions, there are low, medium, and high divisions depending on the probability of getting a crop. It therefore follows that, the low classes have low probability, the medium have moderate probability while the high classes have the highest probability (Thurston, Poiker Moore 2003). The purpose of this classification is to improve sampling efficiency. Therefore, majority of sample points are drawn from areas with high probability. Wise (2002, p. 6) points out that the purpose of this process is to â€Å"obtain the most useful data within the budget constraints and keep the coefficient of variance (CV) as low as possible.† CV is the â€Å"ratio of standard deviation to the mean; it is used when comparing data sets with different units or widely differing means† (Doaks 1997, p. 16). From each stratum, grid points are selected, taken to a Microsoft SQL server database, and grouped consistently from north to south and east to west to guarantee optimum distribution of sample points across a given geographical area (Elangovan 2006). Thereafter, a stochastic starting point is selected and points picked at even intervals based on the number of points needed in each stratum.Advertising Looking for essay on agriculture? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The fourth step is carrying aerial survey of sample points, which obtains crop data. This means that, the crops planted in each sample point are determined and the process involves use of a light aircraft. â€Å"A tablet PC, connected to a GPS running on an ArcPad is used to capture this data† (Fourie 1999, p. 1). This survey involves collecting information on the crops growing on each sample noting whether the crops grow under irrigation or on dry lands. Moreover, more information on specific natural conditions of the land is included in this survey for future references. Finally, the field data â€Å"captured and stored in shapefile format† (Burrough 1998, 69). This information is then transferred to a central server and then to SQL server database (Soller, Berg Wahl 2000). From here, the information can be used in statistical analysis to estimate cropland under grain cover. Limitations Facing GIS in Biotechnology There are numerous challenges facing proper utilizat ion of GIS in this agricultural field. The preferred GIS model is complex and utilizes complicated strategies. For instance, â€Å"Combining several polygon networks by intersection and overlay is difficult and it uses considerable computer power† (Worboys Duckham 2004). Moreover, this process is time consuming and tedious and â€Å"simulation modelling of processes of spatial interaction over paths not defined by explicit topology is more difficult because each spatial entity has a different shape and form† (Maguire, Goodchild Rhind 1997, p. 97). Additionally, this process faces other computational problems and finally it is expensive and may be not applicable in areas with poor economical background. Other issues concerning application of GIS in biotechnology include the ethical concerns surrounding use of biotechnology. Many people have not come into terms with use of biotechnology and in as much as GIS is there for improvement of food production, it may be imposs ible to implement it in areas where biotechnology is not welcomed. On the other hand, GIS has played key role in promoting biotechnology and food security. It has become easier to study arable lands for improvement of production. Conclusion In contemporary times, GIS is becoming a common place across diverse fields. In biotechnology and agriculture in general, GIS has come with numerous advantages. With GIS, the South African government has successfully estimated cropland planted with grains to predict how these lands can sustain grain requirements in the country. Biotechnology is then used to foster productivity of the surveyed lands. On its own, biotechnology would not sustain and assure food security in South Africa because there could not be estimates of what is required. The vector model of GIS has been used widely in these studies given its three dimensional nature of analyzing geographical settings. Several processes are involved starting with obtaining satellite imagery, thr ough digitalizing crop field boundaries and designing point frame to aerial survey and statistical analysis. However, this process is expensive and time consuming given the complex nature of vector data structures and the required resources. References List Berry, J 1993, â€Å"Beyond Mapping: Concepts, Algorithms, and Issues in GIS†, Fort Collins, CO: GIS World Books Burrough, A Mcdonnell, R 1998, â€Å"Principles of Geographical Information Systems†, Oxford; Oxford University Press. Doaks, J 1997, â€Å"Another Introduction to GIS, New York: Bogus Press. Doe, J 1997, â€Å"An Introduction to GIS,† New York: Bogus Press. Elangovan, K 2006 â€Å"GIS: Fundamentals, Applications and Implementations†, New Delhi New India Publishing Agency. ESRI Data Maps 2002, â€Å"GSI Models†, CA: Environmental Systems Research Institute Fourie, A 1999, â€Å"Better Crop Estimates In South Africa†, ESRI Press, 9-14. Johnson, B 1998, â€Å"Digital Geologic Map Data Model. V. 4.3: AASG/USGS Data Model Working Group Report†, Available at  https://www.usgs.gov/science/science-explorer/geology Lee, J Kretzschmar, W 1993, â€Å"Spatial Analysis of Linguistic Data with GIS Functions†, International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 7(6); 541-560. Maguire, D, Goodchild, F Rhind, W 1997, â€Å"Geographic Information Systems: Principles, And Applications†, New York; Longman Publishers. Smith, M, Goodchild, F Longley, A 2007, â€Å"Geospatial Analysis: A Comprehensive Guide to Principles, Techniques and Software Tools†, International Journal of  Geographical Information Science, 8(6); 64-78. Soller, D 1999, â€Å"Proposed Guidelines for Inclusion of Digital Map Products in The National Geologic Map Database†, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 99 (386); 35–38 Soller, D Berg, T 2003, â€Å"The National Geologic Map Database Project: Overview And Progress†, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File, Report 03–471. Soller, D, Berg, T Wahl, R 2000, â€Å"Developing the National Geologic Map Database, Phase 3—An Online, â€Å"Living† Database Of Map Information†, Available at  https://www.usgs.gov/ Soller, D Lindquist, T 2000 â€Å"Development And Public Review Of The Draft â€Å"Digital Cartographic Standard for Geologic Map Symbolization†, Available at  https://www.usgs.gov/ Tomlinson, R 2005, â€Å"Thinking About GIS: Geographic Information System Planning For Managers†, ESRI Press. Thurston, J, Poiker, T Moore, J 2003, â€Å"Integrated Geospatial Technologies: A Guide To GPS, GIS, And Data Logging†, Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. Wise, S 2002, â€Å"GIS Basics†, London: Taylor Francis Worboys, M Duckham, M 2004, â€Å"GIS: A Computing Perspective†, Boca Raton: CRC Press. Wyland, J 1999, â€Å"Agribusiness Grows With Crop-Specific Maps†, ESRI Press. This essay on Application of Geography (GIS) In Biotechnology in Field Of Agriculture And Environment was written and submitted by user Maya D. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

10 Metals and Minerals for Metaphors

10 Metals and Minerals for Metaphors 10 Metals and Minerals for Metaphors 10 Metals and Minerals for Metaphors By Mark Nichol Metals and minerals sometimes inspire associations with human characteristics or with circumstances, as in the case of the examples below: 1. Adamant Few people realize that this word, which in adjectival form means â€Å"insistent† or â€Å"unyielding,† has a lustrous origin: It comes from a Greek noun by way of Latin and originally referred to a diamond or any hard metal. In English, it also is a noun referring to the same materials or any similarly adamantine substances (yes, adamantine is a variant adjective). 2. Brassy From an association with the stridency of brass musical instruments, this adjective has come to refer not just to a quality of sound (as well as a description for the metal compound) but also to bold, clamorous, or unruly behavior. 3. Bronze The comparison of deeply tanned skin with the color of the metallic compound has resulted in the use of bronze to refer to a person with dark skin, either due to genetics or to extensive tanning, as in the reference to a physically imposing man with this hue as â€Å"a bronzed god.† 4. Flinty This term meaning â€Å"stern, unyielding† comes from the hard variety of quartz known as flint, which sparks when struck by steel and has therefore been used for millennia to start fires (though the â€Å"flint† in cigarette lighters is actually an iron alloy). The word skinflint, a synonym for miser, evokes the image of someone attempting to peel a layer off of a hunk of flint (a futile gesture because of its hardness). 5. Golden The value placed on the element gold has led to the use of the adjective golden for various figurative references. Among these, a golden musical tone is a mellow, resonant one; someone or something that is or is expected to be excellent, popular, or otherwise remarkable is marked, for instance, as a golden boy; an age or era might be described as golden; and a favorable occasion is often referred to as a golden opportunity. 6. Iron The word for this fundamental metallic element has been appropriated as an adjective denoting strength (â€Å"iron will†), robustness (â€Å"iron constitution†), relentlessness (â€Å"iron determination†), and firmness (â€Å"iron grip†). The rarely used noun form of these figurative senses is ironness. 7. Leaden Lead, because of its density and its dull color, is associated with literal (â€Å"leaden trudge†) and figurative (â€Å"leaden skies†) heaviness, as well as with dispirited or unsubtle characteristics. 8. Ossified This term literally denotes changing into bone and figuratively refers to becoming set in one’s ways. (Although bone is not strictly a mineral, it is largely composed of various minerals, hence its inclusion on the list.) 9. Silver The adjective form of the noun silver refers to soft or dulcet sounds (as of chimes), or to eloquent persuasion (â€Å"silver tongued†). Glossy gray hair is often referred to as silver, and that description leads to connotations of mature elegance (â€Å"silver-haired dignity†). 10. Steely This adjective referring to strength and hardness is best known as part of the clichà ©s â€Å"steely determination† and â€Å"steely resolve.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Expressions category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Bare or Bear With Me?Acronym vs. InitialismAdverbs and Hyphens

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Service Quality & Customer Satisfaction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Service Quality & Customer Satisfaction - Essay Example Yet when they asked for the manager in order to voice their concerns they were told that, the manager was out on a meeting. Still they had no lack in talking to other staff in the restaurant. Lastly, the contact between staff and the client has the component of perceived command in both par ¬ties. The staff intends to control the conduct of the client to render their own job more practicable and less demanding; similarly, the consumer is attempting to obtain control over service encounter to obtain the most gain from it (Zeithaml 2010).For instance the staff who had told the students that the manager was unavailable must have said this so us to make her work easier. While the students wanted to complain to the manger in order to get a good service. Supremely, the 3 parties benefit much by functioning together to generate a useful service encounter. The decisive moment may be dysfunctional; conversely, the minute one party controls the interface by focusing exclusively on her or his own manipulation of the service encounter.The extent of subjective features of consumer service hinges on the compliance of the anticipated gain with the alleged result. This then relies upon the client's expectation concerning the service they may receive in addition to the service giver’s talent and ability to deliver this expected service. Prosperous Companies add reimbursements to their delivery that not only please the clients but also delight and surprise them. Delighting clients is a question of surpassing their expectations. Quality service can be linked to service prospective (for instance, worker's skills); service process (for instance, the rapidity of service) in addition to service result (client satisfaction). The quality service of the Burger King Restaurant is poor except for the part where the staffs are polite and courteous. The environment setting of the restaurant was not accommodative for the university students. They could not obtain a table large enoug h to cater for

Apple Inc Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Apple Inc - Case Study Example In fact, it contributes to over 50% of Apple’s bottom line and with the sales of its iPhone 5 surpassing that of the iPhone 4s, the company’s market cap increased significantly. Secondly, the Apple Dividend announced in March of 2012 made its stock more attractive to income-searching retail investors, despite its small yield. However, income fund managers found its $2.65 quarterly dividend more important as the income funds require that the investments must provide income (Sutherland, 2012: p52). Having a dividend made it possible for more investors to buy its stock, which increased its market cap. In addition, although Apple’s stocks have been fluctuating, its fundamentals have stayed the same with over $100 billion in cash reserves and no debts. This ensures that investors see it as a safe bet that will climb again. Apple was able to identify market trends and capitalize on them through various means. With a diverse range of stylish products, Apple capitalized on the fact that consumers wanted to be different. The iPhone and the iPad were released after Apple recognized the high demand for computers and phones but that most products on the market looked the same with similar functionalities (Treacy, 2012: p60). Another reason for Apple’s ability to capitalize on identified market trends is its dynamic business plan, which is always set to resonate with what the market wants. By changing the company’s name to Apple Inc from Apple Computer, the company identified the need for a phone with computer functionalities and broadened their spectrum. Apple was also able to identify the fact that music retail outlets were becoming popular and that outsourcing this capability was not giving them what they wanted (Treacy, 2012: p60). ... By opening a retail store, they were able to capitalize on consumers needs for a retail outlet on their phones. Apple was able to achieve global success by leveraging brand loyalty. By taking their business to emerging markets with minimal penetration of smartphones but where their brand was already known due to mass media, the company opened up new opportunities for developers in those markets (Treacy, 2012: p72). In addition, by hiring employees from those countries and from diverse fields, including artists and musicians, they were able to create unique and different perspectives from those countries. Apple also built relationships with its customers in various regions of the world by embracing social media and the internet, which meant that people in these new regions saw Apple as a transparent and trustworthy company. In addition, they also used movement marketing, in which they marketed what Apple believed in, contending that they sought to bring personal experience of computin g to consumers across the world via innovation (Treacy, 2012: p73). By leveraging brand loyalty, Apple consumers have overlooked glitches as they have emotional connections with their products. However, in order for Apple to gain market share across the world, various companies also had to lose market share and the most affected company was Microsoft. By combining most of what Microsoft offered, including a phone, search engine, office, and operating systems, Apple was able to offer consumers a product that was more appealing (Treacy, 2012: p91). By doing this, Apple was also able to grow various market segments. One of them was the smartphone market, which, although still stagnant at 3%, has pushed its competitors to

The History Of The Kitchen Refrigerators

The History Of The Kitchen Refrigerators Today, refrigerators have become an essential part of every kitchen (Tatum, 2010). Refrigeration is used to store meat, vegetables among other foodstuffs at low temperatures, thus inhibiting spoilage due to microbial activity. The process of essentially, manufacturing or making a refrigerator was gradual and begain in the 18th century. It culminitated with Carl von Lindens work in 1876. (Bellis, 2010 Tatum, 2010) Evidence suggests that since 500 AD, man has known to produce ice by natural processes. Egyptians and Indians made ice on cold nights by setting water on earthenware pots. Later on in the 1700s, England servants in the 1700s collected ice in the winter and put into icehouses, which then provided cool storage in the summer. (Bellis, 2010 Tatum, 2010) In 1748, William Cullen of the University of Glasgow developed an entirely new process that consequently lead to an artificial cooling medium being developed. (Tatum, 2010). His experiment produced ice. However; he was unable to explain what it meant. Around 1805, the Oliver Evans was involved in designing a refrigeration apparatus, but unfortunately, he didnt build one until Robert Perkins improved on his creation in 1834. (Bellis, 2010). Thomas Moore coined the word refrigerator for these machines. However, as today Perkins and Evans machines are called iceboxes. In 1844, Dr. John Gorrie, a physician, was able to construct a working unit that was based on both Evans and Perkins model. constructed. It was because of a outbreak of yellow fever that led to Gorrie creating the unit, which was used to cooling the air. (Bellis, 2010 Tatum, 2010) Gorrie is credited as being the one who invented the refrigerator by many. (Bellis, 2010) However the situation began to change, when Carl von Linde (1842-1934), a German mechanical engineer published an essay on improved refrigeration techniques, in 1871. He proposed a continuous process of liquefying gases in large quantities. In 1873, he invented the first practical and portable compressor refrigeration machine. (Tatum, 2010) He obtained a patent for his refrigerator in 1877 from the German Imperial Patent Office. He made use of gases namely ammonia, sulphur dioxide and methyl chloride. (Bellis, 2010 Tatum, 2010) In the 1900s, various refrigeration models were seen. Noteworthy refrigerator models included Servel, Frigidaire, Electroflux among others. (Bellis, 2010) These models of the 1900s had several advancements since designs of pioneers such as Gorrie. By 1918, automatic controls were part of some models already. (Tatum, 2010) The gases used namely ammonia, sulphur and methyl chloride were replaced by Freon in the 1920s in order to comply with safety standards. When one looks at the history, it shows that in 1918, automatic parts were already installed. This included automatic dials that aid in the operation. It was rather unfortunate that the units were not self contained as different parts were separately placed from each other. It wasnt until 1923 that self contained refrigerators began appearing. (Bellis, 2010) Ice cube trays were also introduced. (Tatum, 2010) Although many advancements were made, the modern refrigerator was put in mass production until 1946 i.e., after the World War II. (Bellis, 2010 Tatum, 2010) People, in the the 1950s and 1960s were the ones that witnessed a variety of technological innovations by engineers and scientists of the day. Among them were: (i) automated defrosting and (ii) making of ice. Today, there are many features that are intertwined with the features of the olden days and includes power failure alerts, ice cabinets among others. (Bellis, 2010 Tatum, 2010) To present, domestic refrigerators are present in almost every home worldwide. Due to the models created by Gorrie, Cullen, Carl von Linche among others, the refrigerator has thus become one of the machines or applicances that is integral to us every day. (Bellis, 2010 Tatum, 2010) TYPES OF REFRIGERATORS Refrigerators are classified into three types: (Suyambazhahn, 2009) Air refrigerator Vapour compression refrigerator Vapour absorption refrigerator VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM The vapour compression refrigeration system is most commonly used in refrigerators. A refrigerant is a gas with characteristics that make is suitable for refrigeration and air conditioning. R-22 is a commonly used refrigerant. This cycle works in four phases, which are described later on because it is similar to the refrigeration cycle. Figure 1 Vapour compression refrigerator (Suyambazhahn, 2009) This type has various uses such as: (Suyambazhahn, 2009) Air conditioned cinema theaters, restaurants, hospitals, residential buildings for comfort. Advanced medicines which are manufactured and preserved only in special atmospheric conditions. Preservation of food products. VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM The principle of vapour absorption was first discovered by well known scientist Michael Faraday in 1825. But this concept is applied to refrigeration during 1860s by French Scientist Ferdinand Carve. The commonly used refrigerant for vapour absorption system is ammonia, NH3. In order to change the conditions and phase of refrigerants, heat energy is utilized in vapour absorption system where as mechanical energy is utilized in vapour compression systems. In a vapour absorption system, compressor is replaced by an absorber, a pump and a generator. The vapour at the low pressure that leaves the evaporator is then moved to the absorber. The absorber contains weak ammonia solution. The vapour leaving from the evaporator is dissolved in the weak ammonia solution to form a strong solution. Cooling water is used to cool he absorber. The strong solution from the absorber is pumped to the generator. The strong solutions pressure is increase by the pump (10 bar) and is circulated through the system by pump. Figure 2 Vapour absorption refrigerator schematic (Rajadurai, 2009) COMMONLY USED REFRIGERANTS Even though there are many types of refrigerants which are used in various applications, the following types are important from the subject point of view. AMMONIA It is the most widely used refrigerant. It is mainly used as the refrigerant in cold storage plants and also in ice making plants. Its boilined point at atmospheric pressure is -33 oC and it has a high latent heat and high critical temperature which are desirable properties of ammonia as a refrigerant. Also it is less expensive. But its usage becomes secondary due to the following characteristics: (Rajadurai, 2003) It is toxic It is flammable It has an irritating odour It attacks metals like copper and brass in the presence of moisture CARBON DIOXIDE The demerits involved in the usage of ammonia can be eliminated by using carbon dioxide. It is non toxic and odourless. It has a boiling point of -77.6 oC at atmospheric pressure. But it is not so often used because of its high operating pressure that is the operating pressure of CO2 is very high as 70 bar. (Rajadurai, 2003) SULPHUR DIOXIDE It has a boiling point of -10 oC at atmospheric pressure. IT has a very low working pressure and a large latent heat with a high critical temperature. It is non flammable and on explosive. Even though there are many positive characters mentioned, the SO2 refrigerant is very toxic and it has an irritating pungent odour. Also it is very corrosive in contact with moisture. (Rajadurai, 2003) FREON 12 (or DICHLOR DI FLUOROMETHANE) It has a boiling point of -30 oC at atmospheric pressure. It is non toxic, non explosive and on flammable. It is odorless and colourless. It is non corrosive to any metal. But it is highly costlier than other types of refrigerators. But the main demerit with respect to this is type is the large amount of refrigerant that is necessary to be circulated for a given output. It is generally abbreviated as R-12 or F-12. (Rajadurai, 2003) FREON 22 (or DICHLOR MONO CHLORO METHANE) It is widely used as the refrigerant for domestic refrigerants. It has all positive points like the characters posed by Freon 12 such as non toxicity. It is colourless, odourless and non corrosive to metal. Additionally, the amount of refrigerant required is only 1.3 kg/min per tonne for refrigeration. (Rajadurai, 2003) PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION THERMODYNAMICAL CONSIDERATION THE SECOND LAW The second law of thermodynamics is described as the most fundamental law of science (Khemani, 2008). It is fundamental in the sense that it can be used to explain not only refrigerators and heat engines but highly advanced phenomena such as the big bang. It has been put aptly in the words of Classius as it is impossible for a process to occur that has the sole effect of removing a quantity of heat from an object at a lower temperature and transferring this quantity of heat to an object at a higher temperature (Mortimer, 2008). This essentially means that heat cannot flow spontaneously from a cooler to a hotter body if nothing else happens (Mortimer, 2008) i.e. there needs to be an external agency to effect the change. In kitchen refrigerators, the closed box inside is able to be kept cool by the removal of heat from the inside of the box and deposits it to the outside. As per the second law, the heat will not move from the cold to the hot freely so it is important for it to be made to do so, this is done by using an intermediate fluid (Littlewood, 2004) which absorbed heat on the inside. This intermediate fluid is known as a refrigerant and carries the heat outside of the box whereby it it released into the air as heat as shown in Figure 3 (Littlewood, 2004). Figure 3 the flow of heat within the refrigerator a schematic (Littlewood, 2004) The fluid circulates within the pipe which passes in and out and can be found at the back of the refrigerator. It is kept by using a compressor (which uses electricity from the home) and allows it to work effectively without violating the second law of motion. (Littlewood, 2004) THE FIRST LAW Refrigerator takes in energy from a region that needs to be cooled and deposits this heat energy into some other region that is outside of the refrigerator. In order to do work, there needs to be some mechanism in place, where the work done by a compressor and its electric motor is utilized. Using the First Law of Thermodynamics we can write: (Littlewood, 2004) Figure 4 the first law of thermodynamics (Littlewood, 2004) QC QH = -W Where: Qc energy or heat of the cold system QH = energy or heat of the hot system W = work done Since work is done on the refrigerator by the compressor, the work is done is deemed negative because of sign conventions. This is part of the first law (Littlewood, 2004). The refrigerator is termed as a closed system and it possesses a constant composition: U = U + (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡U/à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡V) T dV U = U + (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡U/à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡T) V dT U = U + (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡U/à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡V) T dV + (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡U/à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡T) T dT dU = (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡U/à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡V) T dV + (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡U/à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡T) V dT According to Bain (2010), there are four basic parts to any refrigerator: Compressor Heat Expansion valve Refrigerant The exchanging pipes are a coiled set of pipes that is placed strategically outside of the unit. The refrigerant as will be discussed later on is a liquid that has the ability to evaporate efficiently so that inside the refrigerator is kept cooled. (Bain, 2010) A gas can be cooled by adiabatic expansion if the process is enthalphic. The gas expands through a process barrier from one constant pressure to the next and the temperature difference in observed. Insulation of the system made the process adiabatic. The result is that a lower temperature was absorbed on the on a low pressure side and the change in the temperature is proportional to the change in pressure. (Bain, 2010)  Ã¢â‚¬Å¾T  µ  Ã¢â‚¬Å¾P Figure 5 schematic of a domestic refrigerator (Bain, 2010) Figure 6 heat transfer within a refrigerator (Popular Mechanics, 1993) When an energy |qc| is removed from a cool source at some temperature Tc, and then deposited in a warmer sink at a temperature Th, the change in entropy is: (Atkins dePaula, 2006) Atkins dePaula (2006) also indicated that the process is not spontaneous because the entropy generated in the warm sink is not enough to overcome the loss of entropy from the cold souce. And because of this more energy needs to be added to the stream that enters the warm sink to generated the entropy required by the system. They further indicated that the outcome is expressed as the coefficient of performance, c: The less the work required to achieve a given transfer, the greater the coefficient of performance and the more efficient the refrigerator (Atkins dePaula, 2004). Because |qc| is removed from the cold source, the work |w| is added to the energy stream, the energy deposited as the heat in the hot sink |qh| = |qc| + |w|. Therefore, From: We can have an expression in terms of the temperature alone, which is possible if the transfer is performed reversibly (Atkins dePaula, 2006): Where: c = thermodynamic optimum coefficient of temperature Tc = temperature of the cold sink Th = temperature of the hot sink For a refrigerator, it important that a very low coefficient of performance. For a refrigerator withdrawing heat from ice cold water (Tc = 273 K) in a typical environment (Th = 293K), c = 14. As an example, to remove 10 kJ (enough to freeze 30 g of water), requires transfer of atleast 0.71 kJ as work. (Atkins dePaula, 2006) The work to maintain a low temperature is very important when designing refrigerators. No thermal insulation is perfect, so there is always some form of energy flowing as heat into a specific sample at a rate that is proportional to the temperature difference. (Atkins and de Paula, 2006). Figure 7 (a) the flow of energy as heat from a cold sink to a hot sink is not spontaneous as described the first law. Notice that the entropy increases but it is larger for the hot sink as compared to the cold sink. (Atkins dePaula, 2006). This contributes to a decrease in the NET entropy. (b) The process becomes feasible if work is provided to add to the energy stream. Then the increase in entropy of the hot sink can be made to cancel the entropy of the hot source (Atkins dePaula, 2006) The rate at which energy leaks happen is written as: Where: A = a constant that depends on the size of the sample and details of the simulation Tc = temperature of the cold sink Th = temperature of the hot sink The minimum power, P, required to maintain the original temperature difference by pumping out that energy by heating the surroundings is: As can be seen the power increases as the square of the temperature difference (Th Tc). THE REFRIGERATION CYCLE The gas is pumped continuously at a steady pressure, the heat exchanger (which brings the required temperature) and then through a porous plug inside container that is thermally insulated. A phase change heat pump uses a liquid, as described earlier, that has a very low boiling point, which is used to move heat from an area where it is cooler to one where it is warmer. The refrigerant requires energy so that it can evaporate, which essentially allows it remove the heat from the surroundings by absorbing it. When the vapor condenses, the energy absorbed in the process is released which is also in the form of heat as might be expected. A refrigerant is a compound used in a heat cycle that undergoes a phase change from a gas to a liquid and back. Latent heat describes the amount of energy in the form of heat that is required for a material to undergo a change of phase (also known as change of state). Two latent heats are typically described. (Bambooweb, 2009)For other uses, see CFC (d isambiguation). The pump operates a cycle in which the refrigerant changes state from its liquid form to the vapour form and vice versa. This process occurs repeatedly and I known as the refrigeration cycle. In this cycle, the refrigerant condenses and heat is released in one point of the cycle. It is the boiled (or evaporated) so that it absorbs heat in another point of the cycle. The widely used refrigerant is hydro fluorocarbon (HFC) known as R-134a and CCl2F2 (dichlorodifluoromethane). Other substances such as liquid ammonia, propane or butane, are be used but because of their highly flammable nature, they are disregarded as a good refrigerant. 1930 (MCMXXX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link is to a full 1930 calendar). (Bambooweb, 2009)For other uses, see CFC (disambiguation). In the refrigerator the fluid used (e.g. CCl2F2 ) fluid is liquefied by compression then vaporized by sudden expansion which gives a cooling effect. The compressor, in itself does not create a cooling effect directly, as might be expected. The cooling effect is fashioned when the refrigerant absorbs the heat so that it is removed and the area becomes cooler. This is accomplished with a heat exchanger. (Bambooweb, 2009)For other uses, see CFC (disambiguation). A heat exchanger is a device built for efficient heat transfer from one fluid to another, whether the fluids are separated by a solid wall so that they never mix, or the fluids are directly contacted. The refrigeration cycle can be divided in two parts: The liquefaction stage The evaporation stage LIQUEFACTION STAGE The refrigerant vapour undergoes recycling by itself into the liquid form by the extraction of heat from a vapour at a higher temperature. The refrigerant is compressed by the compressor where a low pressure and low temperature condition is created. This is accomplished by an evaporating coil. During the compression process, the vapour of the refrigerant undergoes a temperature change (as an effect of the compression process). Additionally, the work of compression to create the high temperature and pressure vapour also contributes to the temperature change experienced by the vapour. The condenser that is located where the temperature is higher (i.e. the higher temperature heat sink) collects the vapour. Heat is then removed from the refrigerant and in lieu of this it condenses to its liquid state, hence the name for the condenser. (Mortimer, 2003 ; Brain, 1994 ; Bellis, 2010) Using the Joule-Thompson coefficient: For a perfect gas  µ = 0 Cp + Cv = (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡H/à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡T)p (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡U/à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡T)p Introducing: H = U + pV = nRT into the first term: Cp Cv = (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡U/à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡T)p + nR (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡U/à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡T)p = nR EVAPORATION STAGE As the refrigerant leaves the condenser, the next part of the cycle begins. This is accomplished when a high temperature and high pressure liquid passes through a metering device that is found within the refrigeration. The valve allows a specific quantity of liquid coolant to pass into the evaporation chamber. Evaporation chambers are relatively low pressure and this encourages coolant evaporation. Newly evaporated coolant is drawn though the cooling coils (typically a fan is used to blow air over the coils). Thus, the evaporative process produces the cooling effect. The refrigerant then is pulled to the compressor in the suction line where it will be compressed into a high temperature, high pressure gas and sent to the external heat sinking coils. Capillary action or capillarity is the ability of a narrow tube to draw a liquid upwards against the force of gravity. (Mortimer, 2003 ; Brain, 1994 ; Bellis, 2010) A refrigerator pumps heat up a temperature gradient. The cooling efficiency of this operation depends on the amount of heat extracted from the cold temperature reservoir (the freezer compartment), , and the work needed to do so. Since a practical refrigerator operates in a cycle to provide a continuous removal of heat, for the cycle. Then, by the conservation of energy (or first law), , where is the heat ejected to the high temperature reservoir or the outside. (Mortimer, 2003 ; Brain, 1994 ; Bellis, 2010) The measure of a refrigerator performance is defined as the efficiency expressed in terms of the coefficient of performance (). Since the purpose is to extract the most heat () per unit work input (), the coefficient of performance for a refrigerator, , is expressed as their ratio: (Mortimer, 2003 ; Brain, 1994 ; Bellis, 2010) Where, the conservation relationship given above is used to express the work in terms of heat. For normal refrigerator operation, the work input is less than the heat removed, so the is greater than 1. Refrigerators are commonly referred to as heat pumps of more specifically a it is a reversible heat pump because they basically pump heat. (Mortimer, 2003 ; Brain, 1994 ; Bellis, 2010) Figure 8 A diagram of the vapor compression refrigeration cycle that is used in heat pumps. The cycle shows the following: (i) condenser, (ii) expansion valve, (iii) evaporator, (iv) compressor. (Karin, 2003) It is commonly believed that by opening a refrigerator, itll cool the kitchen. However this is entirely opposite, opening a refrigerator or freezer heats up the kitchen because the refrigeration cycle does not accept the air from the outside (Karlin 2003). The heat is referred to as the heat dissipated from the compressors work and also includes that heat that s removed from within the refrigerator as well. (Karlin, 2003) The COP (in a heating or cooling application), provided that it undergoes steady state operation, is given by the following equation: Where: ΆQcool is the heat extracted from a cold reservoir, ΆQhot is the heat delivered to a hot reservoir. ΆA is the dissipated work by the compressor. THE CARNOT ENGINE The Carnot refrigerator is the maximum limit to the COP (efficiency) of a refrigerator system. Although we cannot make the carnot refrigerator, it tells us the maxium or best performance that can be garnered from a real refrigerator. The carnot refrigerator is sort of ideal in its design. As described earlier by Atkins dePaula (2006) with the Carnot engine, the COPc of a Carnot refrigerator depends (i) the temperature of the region that needs to be kept cool which has a characteristic temperature, TC and the temperature of the region where the heat needs to be transferred to, having a characteristic temperature, TH. It is equal to: (Littlewood, 2004) EFFICIENCY The efficiency of a refrigerator is described by a special coefficient known as a coefficient of performance and is defined in terms of the following parameters: SUMMARY OF THERMODYNAMICS OF A REFRIGERATOR AFTER ONE CYCLE Change in internal energy = 0 Change in heat is > 0 Total work > 0 Total volume change = 0 Change in Gibbs free energy = 0 Entropy change of the system = 0 Entropy change of the universe > 0